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Buddhism
(Pāli Buddhadhamma or Sanskrit Buddhadharma) is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, who lived in the 5th century BCE. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries following his death, and propagated into Central, Southeast, and East Asia, as well as Eastern Europe over the next two millennia. Today, Buddhism is divided primarily into two traditions, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism continues to attract followers worldwide, and is considered a major world religion.
A replica of an ancient statue of Gautama Buddha, found in Sarnath, near Varanasi. Buddhism Portal
Buddhism
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Contents [hide]
1 Introduction
2 Origins
3 Who is a Buddha?
4 Major sects
5 Principles of Buddhism
5.1 The Three Marks of Existence
5.1.1 Anicca
5.1.2 Dukkha
5.1.3 Anatta
5.2 The Four Noble Truths
5.3 The Noble Eightfold Path
5.4 Buddhism and reality
6 Practices of Buddhism
6.1 Refuge in The Three Jewels
6.2 The Five Precepts
6.3 Buddha-nature
6.4 Other principles and practices
6.5 Vegetarianism
7 Buddhist religious philosophy and branches
8 Buddhism after the Buddha
9 Principal schools of Buddhist philosophy
10 Scriptures
11 Relations with other faiths
12 Buddhism in the modern world
13 Buddhism in the West
14 See also
14.1 Buddhism
14.2 Related systems and religions
14.3 Related modern concepts
15 References
16 Notes
17 External links
17.1 About Buddhism
17.2 Comparative religion
17.3 Journalism
17.4 Online communities
17.5 Organizations
17.6 Teachings
17.7 Other
Introduction
Buddhism is a major spiritual movement, with an estimated 700 million followers worldwide. Accurate demographic data is difficult to acquire, however, because many Buddhists live in nations with governments opposed to Buddhism, and because of the growing number of Buddhists in the West.
There is controversy among scholars of religion concerning whether Buddhism constitutes a religion or a Philosophical movement; these discussions closely follow the problem of "what is religion?" (see religious studies). Especially in the West, many people who are devoutly Buddhist also consider themselves to be Christian, Muslim, or Jewish.
In general, the aim of Buddhist practice is to end all kind of suffering in life. To achieve this state, adherents seek to purify and train the mind by following the Noble Eightfold Path, eventually to gain knowledge of "true reality" and thus attain liberation (Nirvana).
Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness (ahimsa) and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (sila), meditative concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (prajñā).
The Buddha is considered to be a person who discovered the true nature of reality through years of study, investigation of the various religious practices of his time, and meditation. This discovery is called enlightenment. According to the Buddha, any person can follow his example and become enlightened through the study of his words, and by leading a virtuous, moral life.
While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (e.g., the devas; indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgment to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual. All supernatural beings, as living entities, are a part of the six-part reincarnation cycle.
Buddhism is categorized under the Shraman Tradition (Shramaṇa Paramparā) of Indian philosophy, rather than the Vedic Tradition (Vaidika Paramparā) that is followed by Orthodox Hinduism. Buddhism is called an Ārya Dharma (Aryan religion), meaning, a noble religious way of life.
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Origins
The Great Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India.As with any history so old, there are many different stories of how Siddhārtha Gautama (Sanskrit सिद्धार्थ गौतम, pronounced as "sιd-dhα:rthə gautəmə"; in Pāli, Siddhattha Gautama) made his way to enlightenment. Until recently, he was said to have lived in northern India between 563 and 483 BCE. However, new scholarship since the 1990s suggests the Buddha's lifetime was more likely to have been approximately 480 BCE-400 BCE. This revision affects the dating of many other events in early India that depend on the Buddha's date. (See the review article by Cousins for discussion [1].)
The Theravada tradition says he was born around 566 BCE. His father was the Shākya king Śuddhodana and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, and was spared all hardship. However, from a historical point of view it is understood that Śuddhodana was not a king, but a chief, as the Shākyas were a sort of confederation and had no kings. Since Siddhārtha belonged to the Shākya clan, he came to be known as Shākyamunī ("chief of the Shākyas").
Siddhartha's birth was an auspicious one. His mother dreamt one night that an elephant with six tusks and a head the colour of rubies came down from the highest heaven and entered her womb on the right side. Eight Brahmins told her husband the child would be holy and achieve perfect wisdom. Later she entered the garden of Lumbini with her attendants, and walked beneath the Sala tree, which bent down. The queen took hold of the branch and looked up to the heavens. At that moment Siddhartha was born out of her side. He immediately took seven steps towards each quarter of heaven, and at each step a lotus flower sprung up. He then declared he would have no more births, that this was his last body and he would pluck out by the roots sorrow caused by birth and death.
Most traditions believe that the Buddha's mother passed away at his birth or a few days later. The legend says that a seer predicted shortly after his birth that Siddhārtha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, he came across what has become known as the Four Passing Sights: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These four sights led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death come to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession since beginningless time. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his privilege, rank, caste, and his wife and child, to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death.
Indian holy men (called sādhus), in those days just as today, often engaged in a variety of ascetic practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the ātman (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "soul" became free from the cycle of rebirth with its pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no solution to end all Suffering and so, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. After six years of ascetism, and nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing.
Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the Bodhi tree) and set to meditating. He developed a new way of meditating, which began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, after six years since he began his quest in search of a solution to an end of Suffering, he attained Enlightenment, and became a Buddha. This place is in the state of Bihar in India.
The Buddha venerated by Indra and Brahma, Kanishka casket, dated to 127 CE, British Museum.According to one of the stories in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1), a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons, immediately after his Enlightenment the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the Dharma. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they wouldn't be able to see the true Dharma which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. Two gods, Brahma Sahampati and Indra, interceded, and asked that the Buddha teach the Dharma to the world, saying, "There will be those who will understand the Dharma". With his great compassion, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. At the Deer Park near Varanasi in northern India he set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he sought for enlightenment before. They, together with Buddha, formed the first sangha, the company of Buddhist monks.
In other versions of his life-story, the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. [citation needed]
The state of Shākya, where he was born, was an oligarchic republic at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. Therefore, it is believed that the Buddha's father was not a king in the sense of an absolute ruler, but rather an influential tribal figure. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.
It has also been suggested that the influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar may have given rise to Buddhism. [citation needed] Buddhist scriptures describe various penances (tapas) undertaken by Gautama Siddhartha which appear identical to Jain penances (e.g., cupping the hands to consume alms, plucking of hair, the penance by five fires, etc. ). These penances were later renounced by Gautama as activities not leading to Nirvana (Final Liberation). Buddhist writings reflect that Jainism was an already established faith — rather than a newly founded or reformist one — by the time Buddha lived. Early Buddhists posited the existence of 24 previous Buddhas (Buddhas who walked the earth prior to Siddhartha Gautama, as established in the Buddhist text Mahavanso 1:100:1 among others) many of whose names are identical to those of the 24 Jain Tirthankaras and other traditional Jain figures. Suggesting close correlations between the teachings of the Jains and Buddha, the Majjhima Nikaya relates dialogues between Buddha and several members of the Nigantha (Jain) community, sometimes resulting in the latter's acceptance of Buddha as a teacher. (See also Jainism and Jainism and Buddhism)
In many instances, both philosophies continue to share similar Prakrit terminology for important themes and teachings but may differ significantly in interpretation and meaning. This method of teaching adopted by the Buddha points to the pragmatic aspect of Buddha's style of teaching wherein the Buddha uses words and terms that are familiar to the audience instead of introducing new and complex technical jargon. In this way, Buddhism sought to appeal to a broad audience.
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Who is a Buddha?
A stone image of the Buddha.The term "Buddha" is derived from the verbal root "budh", meaning "to awake up" or "to comprehend" and "a" one, literally meaning "the one who is awake"[2]. It is written in Devanagari script as Hindi: बुद्ध and pronounced as /bυd-dhə/, where both "d" and "dh" are dentals, and "dh" is an aspirated stop.
The word "Buddha" denotes not just the historical Buddha Shakyamuni or Siddhartha Gautama who lived some 2,500 years ago, but also a type of person, of which there have been many throughout the course of time. (As an analogy, the term "president" refers not just to one person, but to everyone who has ever held the office of presidency.) The historical Buddha is one member of the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which is thought to extend beyond history into the past and into the indefinite future.
Shakyamuni Buddha did not generally claim any divine status for himself - although in some Mahayana sutras, he does declare that he is the "god above the gods - superior to all the gods" (Lalitavistara Sutra); he also did not say that he was inspired by a god or gods. He is instead Dharma (Ultimate Truth - variously construed by Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism) made manifest. A Buddha is anyone who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, liberated himself from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth, has eradicated all negative qualities and developed all positive qualities, possibly including omniscience. (Buddhas do not claim to be omnipotent, unlike the God of Christianity, Islam or Judaism.) All sentient beings can free themselves from suffering as Gautama did, regardless of age, Biological sex, or caste. The Mahayana and Theravada schools of thought differ on whether this includes animals as well; Mayahana Buddhism holds that, despite the incredible difficulties involved, animals can theoretically achieve enlightenment. In both Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, however, the Buddha is viewed as one who, in past lives, had in fact been born as an animal at various times during his progress through Samsara. But only as a human being was he able to achieve full Awakening (bodhi).
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha (transcending his mere physical form) is viewed as a boundless, beginningless and endless being, present in all times and all places, yet beyond the reach of logic or mundane conceptualisation. He is regarded as the very embodiment of ungraspable, eternal yet realisable Dharma - ultimate Truth or "Enlightenment" (bodhi). In essence, all perfect Buddhas are seen by Mahayana Buddhism as One in nature - all are salvational channels or vessels of Dharma.
The principles by which a person can achieve enlightenment are known as the Buddhadharma, or simply—the Dharma, meaning (in this context) "law, doctrine, or truth".
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Major sects
Buddhism is usually divided into two main branches: Theravada Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism. The followers of Theravada Buddhism take the scriptures known as the "Pali suttas, vinaya and abhidhamma" (the Tipitaka/Tripitaka) as normative and authoritative; the followers of Mahayana Buddhism base themselves chiefly on the "Mahayana sutras" (sutra/sutta is generally a scripture in which the Buddha himself gives instruction), as well as on various versions of the vinaya. Whereas the Theravadins (followers of Theravada Buddhism) adhere solely to the Pali suttas and their commentaries, the adherents of Mahayana accept both the suttas and the Mahayana sutras as authentic and valid teachings of the Buddha, aimed at different types of person and different levels of spiritual penetration. For the Theravadins, the Mahayana sutras are deviant works of poetic fiction, not issuing from the Buddha himself; for the Mahayanists, the Pali suttas (or "agamas", as such scriptures are also known) do indeed contain basic, foundational (or provisional) and therefore very precious teachings of the Buddha, while for those same Mahayanists the Mahayana sutras articulate the Buddha's higher, advanced and deeper doctrines, reserved for those who follow the Bodhisattva-Path, which includes the desire and the effort to achieve not only personal liberation, but to attain buddhahood in order to benefit all living beings. Hence the name Mahayana, lit, the Greater Vehicle, which has room for both the general masses of sentient beings and those more developed. Mahayanists often refer to Theravada as belonging to the Hinayana, literally the Lesser Vehicle. This term is now widely seen as either inaccurate or derogatory, although it does actually appear in the famous Mahayana scripture, the Lotus Sutra (amongst others). Most adherents of Mahayana use the term Hinayana in a respectful way referring to several historical Hinayana schools that may or may not include the currently existing Theravada. Nevertheless, because of the negative connotation, some now prefer to use the term Śravakayāna (Skt. Vehicle of Hearers) instead.
An alternative categorisation of Buddhism follows the major languages of the Buddhist canon, which exists in Pali, Tibetan, and Chinese collections. (Some texts exist in original Sanskrit.) This would serve to divide East Asian Mahayana Buddhism from the Vajrayana form of Mahayana found in Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, Korea, Japan (Tendai), Northern India (Sikkim & Ladakh/Leh), and Mongolia. In many works Chan (禪 or Seon or Zen) is set out as a distinct school; this is due to the fact that Chan is a heavily sinified form of Mahayana Buddhism, having developed and evolved for many centuries within China then traveling to Korea before being passed on to Japan. Still some others consider Zen (the Japanese pronunciation of the character 禪) to be a unique product of Japan and its island culture: fusion of Bushi ideas, Daoist philosophy, and Mahayana Buddhism.
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Principles of Buddhism
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The Three Marks of Existence
Main article: Three marks of existence
According to the Buddhist tradition, all phenomena (dharmas) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the Dharma seals, that is anicca (impermanence), dukkha (suffering) and Anatta (no self).
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Anicca
Main article: Anicca
(Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All compounded phenomena (things and experiences) are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. (Practically) everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in constant flux, and so conditions and the thing itself is constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
The important point here is that phenomena arise and cease according to (complex) conditions and not according to our whims and fancy. While we have limited ability to effect change to our possessions and surroundings, experience tells us that our feeble attempts are no guarantee that the results of our efforts will be to our likings. More often than not, the results fall short of our expectations.
In Mahayana Buddhism, a caveat is added: one should indeed always meditate on the impermanence and changefulness of compounded structures and phenomena, but one must guard against extending this to the realm of Nirvana, where impermanence holds no sway and eternity alone obtains. To see Nirvana or the Buddha (in his ultimate Dharmakaya nature) as impermanent would be to indulge in "perverted Dharma" and would be seriously to go astray, according to the Buddha's final Mahayana doctrines. Other schools of Buddhism, however, feel uneasy with such a teaching.
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Dukkha
Main article: Dukkha
Whatever is impermanent is subject to change. Whatever is subject to change is subject to suffering.
— The Buddha
Striving for what we desire, we may experience stress and suffering — dukkha (Pāli; Sanskrit: duḥkha). Getting what we desired, we may find delight and happiness. Soon after, the novelty may wear out and we may get bored with it. Boredom is a form of dissatisfaction (or suffering) and to escape from it, we divert ourselves from such boredom by indulging in a pursuit of new forms of pleasure. Sometimes not willing to relinquish objects that we are already disinterested in, we start to collect and amass possessions instead of sharing with others who may have better use in it than we do. Boredom is a result of change. Change of our interest in that object of desire that so captivated us in the first place.
If we do not get bored already, then change may instead occur in the object of desire. Silverware may become tarnished, a new dress worn thin or a gadget gone obsolete. Or it may become broken, causing us to grieve. In some cases it may get lost or stolen. In some cases, we may worry about such losses even before they happen. Husbands and wives worry about losing their spouses even though their partners are faithful. Unfortunately, sometimes our very worry and fear drives us to act irrationally, resulting in distrust and breaking up of the very relationship that we cherished so much.
While we like changes such as becoming an adult when we are in our teens, we dislike the change called aging. While we strive for change to become rich, we fear the change of retrenchment. We are selective in our attitude towards the transient nature of our very existence. Unfortunately, this transient nature is unselective. We can try to fight it, just as many have tried since beginningless time, only to have our efforts washed away through the passages of time. As a result, we continually experience dissatisfaction or suffering due to the very impermanence of compounded phenomena.
Only in the realm of Nirvana — so Mahayana Buddhism insists — can true and lasting happiness be found. Nirvana is the opposite of the conditional, the transitory and the painful (dukkha), so it does not result in disappointment or deterioration of the state of bliss. Nirvana is the refuge from the otherwise universal tyranny of change and suffering. In other schools of Buddhism, nirvana is not viewed as the goal, but merely as a projection from the state of samsara. According to these schools samsara (confusion) and nirvana (perfection) are two sides of the same coin that must be transcended through diligent practice of meditation.
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Anatta
Main article: Anatta
(Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "soul" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence conceived by virtue of existence. This concept and the related concept of Brahman, the Vedantic monistic ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate ātman for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a Platonic form. The Buddha rejected all concepts of ātman, emphasizing not permanence, but changeability. He taught that all concepts of a substantial personal self were incorrect, and formed in the realm of ignorance. However, in a number of major Mahayana sutras (e.g. the Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Tathagatagarbha Sutra, the Srimala Sutra, among others), the Buddha is presented as clarifying this teaching by saying that, while the skandhas (constituents of the ordinary body and mind) are not the Self, there does truly exist an eternal, unchanging, blissful Buddha-essence in all sentient beings, which is the uncreated and deathless Buddha-nature ("Buddha-dhatu") or "True Self" of the Buddha himself. This immaculate Buddhic Self (atman) is in no way to be construed as a mundane, impermanent, suffering "ego", of which it is the diametrical opposite. On the other hand, this Buddha-essence or Buddha-nature is also often explained as the potential for achieving Buddhahood, rather than an existing phenomenon one can grasp onto as being me or self. It is the opposite of a personalised, samsaric "I" or "mine". The paradox is that as soon as the Buddhist practitioner tries to grasp at this inner Buddha potency and cling to it as though it were his or her ego writ large, it proves elusive. It does not "exist" in the time-space conditioned and finite mode in which mundane things are bodied forth. It is presented by the Buddha in the relevant sutras as ultimately inexplicable, primordially present Reality itself - the living potency for Buddhahood inside all beings. It is finally revealed (in the last of the Buddha's Mahayana sutras, the Nirvana Sutra) not as the circumscribed "non-self", the clinging ego (which is indeed anatta/anatman), but as the ever-enduring, egoless Great Self or Dharmakaya of the Buddha.
The scriptural evidence of the Nikāyas and Āgamas is ambivalent with regard to the Buddha's reported views on the existence or otherwise of a permanent self (ātman/atta). Though he is clearly reported to have criticized many of the heterodox concepts concerning an eternal personal self and to have denied the existence of an eternal self with regards to any of the constituent elements (skandha) of a being, [citation needed] he is nevertheless not reported to have explictly denied the existence of a non-personal, permanent self, contrary to the popular, orthodox view of the Buddha's teachings. Moreover, when the Buddha predicates "anātman" (anatta) with regards to the constituents of a being, there is a grammatical ambivalence in the use of the term. The most natural interpretation is that he is simply stating that "the constituents are not the self" rather than "the constituents are devoid of self". This ambivalence was to prove troublesome to Buddhists after the Buddha's passing. Some of the major schools of Buddhism that developed subsequently maintained the former interpretation, but other influential schools adopted the latter interpretation and took measures to establish their view as the orthodox Buddhist position.
One such proponent of this hard-line "no self" position was the monk Nagasena, who appears in the Questions of King Milinda, composed during the period of the Hellenistic Indo-Greek kingdom of the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. In this text, Nagasena demonstrates the concept of absolute 'no self' by likening human beings to a chariot and challenges the Greek king "Milinda" (Menander) to find the essence of the chariot. Nagasena states that just as a chariot is made up of a number of things, none of which are the essence of the chariot in isolation, without the other pieces, similarly no one part of a person is a permanent entity; we can be broken up into five constituents — body, sensations, ideation, mental formations and consciousness — the consciousness being closest to the permanent idea of 'self', but is ever-changing with each new thought according to this viewpoint.
According to some thinkers both in the East and the West, the doctrine of "non-Self", may imply that Buddhism is a form of nihilism or something similar. However, as thinkers like Nagarjuna have clearly pointed out, Buddhism is not simply a rejection of the concept of existence (or of meaning, etc.) but of the hard and fast distinction between existence and nonexistence, or rather between being and nothingness. Phenomena are not independent from causes and conditions, and do not exist as isolated things as we perceive them to be. Philosophers such as Nāgārjuna stress that the lack of a permanent, unchanging, substantial self in beings and things does not mean that they do not experience growth and decay on the relative level. But on the ultimate level of analysis, one cannot distinguish an object from its causes and conditions, or even object and subject. (This is an idea appearing relatively recently in Western science.) Buddhism thus has much more in common with Western empiricism, pragmatism, anti-foundationalism, and even poststructuralism than with nihilism.
In the Nikāyas, the Buddha and his disciples are commonly found to ask in question or declare "Is that which is impermanent, subject to change, subject to suffering fit to be considered thus: 'This I am, this is mine, this is my self'?" The question which the Buddha posts to his audience is whether compounded phenomena is fit to be considered as self, in which the audience agrees that it is unworthy to be considered so. And in relinquishing such an attachment to compounded phenomena, such a person gives up delight, desire and craving for compounded phenomena and is unbounded by its change. When completely free from attachments, craving or desire to the five aggregates, such a person experiences then transcends the very causes of suffering.
In this way, the insight wisdom or prajñā of non-self gives rise to cessation of suffering, and not an intellectual debate over whether a self exists or not.
It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops prajñā, which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering. From the "tathagatagarbha-Mahayana" perspective (which diverges from the Theravadin understanding of Buddhism), however, a further step is required if full Buddhahood is to be attained: not only seeing what is impermanent, suffering and non-Self in the samsaric sphere, but equally recognising that which is truly Eternal, Blissful, Self, and Pure in the transcendental realm — the realm of Mahaparinirvana.
See also: three marks of existence
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The Four Noble Truths
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: Ariya Atthangika Magga, Sanskrit: Arya Ashtanga Marg). This teaching is called the Four Noble Truths (Pali: Cattari Ariya Saccani, Sanskrit: Chatur Arya Satya). It is believed by many that this was the first teaching of the Buddha which he gave under a bodhi tree. They are:
Dukkha: All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
Samudaya: There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (tanha) rooted in ignorance.
Nirodha: There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
Magga: There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.
Buddhism teaches that suffering is caused by desire and want. The central theory of Buddhist philosophy that explains the cause of suffering is Pratītyasamutpāda (in Sanskrit). It is written in devanagari as प्रतीत्यसमुत्पाद and pronounced as "prətītyə səmυtpα:də". It means "the chain of causation", and further that everything in the world, including the soul, is only relative and momentary. According to the famous Karma theory, no action is independent but depends upon its cause. The soul, which is not considered an everlasting reality, goes through an eternal cycle of births and deaths, passing through the following twelve stages:
Ignorance or Avidyā
Impressions or Samskāra
Consciousness or Vijñāna
Mind-Body Organism or Nāma Rūpa
Six Senses or ŞaDāyatana
Sense contact or Sparsha
Sense Experience or Vedanā
Craving or Tŗişhņa
Mental Clinging or Upādāna
Will to be born or Bhava
Rebirth or Jāti
Suffering or Jarā-maraņa.
Buddhism says that each stage leads to the next, and the twelfth then leads to the first. This cycle of births and deaths cannot be severed until one attains Nirvana.
Note that the names are given in Sanskrit and their English meanings are only approximate.
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The Noble Eightfold Path
Main article: Noble Eightfold Path (Pali: ariya atthangika magga)
Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
Right View - acknowledging the Four Noble Truths
Right Intentions - committing to the dharma and reaching nirvana
Right Speech - avoiding gossip, lies, and other harmful words
Right Conduct - living a moral life, not harming others
Right Livelihood - working at a job that is honest and does not take advantage of others
Right Effort - ending evil thoughts and replacing them with positive ones
Right Mindfulness - becoming aware of all mental and physical states during daily activity and meditation
Right Concentration - reaching the deepest states of meditation that lead to nirvana
Sometimes in the Pāli Canon the Noble Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages through which the practitioner moves, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.
The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a way of developing śīla, meaning mental and moral discipline.
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Buddhism and reality
In Buddhism the perceived reality is considered unreal (according to the Buddha: "Mañjushri, dreams appear but do not exist. Similarly all things, too, appear but do not exist."...“They are illusory, like a mirage, a castle in the sky, the moon in water, a reflected image and an emanation.”[3])
There are at least two points of view in Buddhism on this issue.
Some consider that unreality of "reality" is confusing and not really accurate. They posit that in Buddhism the perceived reality is considered illusory not in the sense that reality is a fantasy or unreal, but that our perceptions and preconditions mislead us to believe that we are separate from the elements that we are made of. Reality, in Buddhist thought, would be described as the manifestation of karma, part of the process of impermanence. For details see Reality in Buddhist Sutra.
Other school of thought in Buddhism, such as e.g. Dzogchen, consider the perceived reality literally unreal. As a prominent contemporary teacher puts it: "In a real sense, all the visions that we see in our lifetime are like a big dream".[4] In this context the term 'visions' denotes not only visual perceptions, but appearances perceived through all senses, including sounds, smells, tastes and tactile sensations. For details see Reality vs Dreams in Dzogchen.
Different schools and traditions in Tibetan Buddhism give different explanations of the mechanism producing the illusion usually called "reality".[5][6]
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Practices of Buddhism
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Refuge in The Three Jewels
Footprint of the Buddha with the triratana, the symbolic depiction of the Three Jewels, and the Dharma wheel, 1st century CE, Gandhara.Main article: Refuge (Buddhism)
Buddhists seek refuge in the "Three Jewels" of Buddhism as the foundation of their religious practice. The jewels are the Buddha, the Dharma, and the "noble" and "monastic" Sanghas [7] (the group of beings possessing at least some degree of enlightenment and the community of monks and nuns, respectively).
The Buddha presented himself as an ideal example and entreated his followers to have faith in his example as one who was human and escaped the pain of existence. Buddhists believe that there is no otherworldly salvation from one's karma. The suffering caused by the karmic effects of previous thoughts, words and deeds can be avoided by following the Noble Eightfold Path. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. The Sangha provides a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further example that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.
To someone who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, often more than once in order to remind themselves of their commitment and to direct their resolve inward toward liberation.
In all forms of Buddhism, refuge in the Three Jewels are taken before the Sangha for the first time, as a part of the conversion ritual. However, to Buddhists, the personal choice for taking refuge is more important than the external ritual.
In Buddhism, the word "refuge" should often not be taken in the English sense of "hiding" or "escape"; instead it is thought of as a homecoming, or place of healing. This simple misunderstanding has led some Western scholars to conclude that Buddhism is "a religion for sticking one's head in the sand", when most Buddhists would assert quite the opposite. On the other hand, the main goal of Buddhism is to escape from the suffering of cyclic existence. Some translators also translate it as "taking safe direction".
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The Five Precepts
Main article: Pancasila
The Buddha statue Aukana, in Sri LankaBuddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Hence, they are also known as training rules. Laypeople generally undertake (at least one of) five precepts. The Five Precepts are not given in the form of commands such as "thou shalt not ...", but rather are promises to oneself: "I will (try) ..."
To refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
To refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
To refrain from sexual misconduct.
To refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
To refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.
This difference stems from the rationale behind them. While other religion institutes commandments and is based on the wishes or commands of a divine being, Buddhist precepts are based more on common sense that the Buddha highlights to Buddhists. Just as we would not want to be killed, others, cherishing their own life would not want to be killed. Hence we should not engage in harming or killing others. The same rationale applies to the second, third and fourth precepts.
The fifth and last precept involving refrain from intoxicants is unique in that the act of taking intoxicants itself is commonly not seen as an immediate or direct harm towards others. Instead it may serve as the catalyst for further acts of transgression against others in terms of either a single or possible combination of any of the first four precepts. The daily news will ascertain for us that there are daily crimes and accidents around the world that result from the consumption of alcohol or other forms of intoxicants, many of which could have been avoided if this rule was observed.
In addition to the indirect effects of intoxicants is the direct impact that intoxicants have, of dulling the mind. Mindfulness, a central teaching in Buddhism, builds upon the ability to train one's mind and develop it to its fullest potential of enlightenment, whereas the taking of intoxicants runs counter to that and impedes mindfulness by allowing dullness and heedlessness of the mind.
The other distinguishing feature of the Buddhist precepts is that they are wider-ranging in implication than the "commandments" of some other religions. The first precept, against killing, for example, forbids the killing of animals as well as humans (but see Buddhist vegetarianism). Furthermore, in Mahayana Buddhism, the Buddha indicates how all-inclusive the injunction against killing is, saying (in The Scripture of Brahma's Net):
"Disciples of the Buddha, should you yourself kill, wilfully cause another to kill, encourage someone to kill, extol killing, take pleasure in seeing killing take place, deliberately wish someone dead, intentionally cause death, supply the instruments or means for killing, cut off a life even when sanctioned by law, that is, participate in any way in killing, you are committing a serious offense warranting exclusion. Pray, do not intentionally kill anything whatsoever which has life."
It should also be noted that the literal, and possibly original, meaning of the third precept covers more than the now generally standard meaning "sexual misconduct" and actually involves refraining from "wrong indulgence in all sensory pleasures". [citation needed]
In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to sexual misconduct becomes a precept of celibacy. Fully ordained monks and nuns of the Theravada school also observe 227 and 311 patimokkha training rules respectively.
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Buddha-nature
Main article: Buddha-nature
The doctrines of the Buddha in certain Mahayana sutras contain a set of "ultimate" (nitartha) teachings — rejected, by the Theravadins — on the immanence of a hidden, deep-seated reality within all sentient beings which is linked to the eternality of the Buddha and Nirvana. This immanent yet transcendent essence is variously called, in the key tathagatagarbha sutras which expound it, the Buddha-dhatu ("Buddha-element", Buddha-nature) or the Tathagatagarbha. This Buddha-dhatu is empty of all that is contingent, changeful, painful and impermanent. In the Nirvana Sutra, it is called by the Buddha the "True Self" (to distinguish it from the "false" worldly self made up of the five skandhas). It is no less than the unfabricated, uncreated, uncompounded, immaculate, immortal, all-knowing, radiantly shining Principle of blissful Buddhahood - the very Dharmakaya,/ Dhammakaya法身. This Tathagatagarbha / Buddha-dhatu, inherent in all beings, can never be destroyed or harmed, and yet is concealed from view by a mass of obscuring mental and moral taints within the mind-stream of the individual being. Once the Buddha-dhatu is finally seen and known by the faithful Buddhist practitioner, it has the power to transform that seer and knower into a Buddha. The doctrine of the Tathagatagarbha / Buddha-dhatu is stated by the Buddha of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra to be the "absolutely final culmination" of his Mahayana Dharma.
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Other principles and practices
Meditation or dhyāna of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of karma and vipaka; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime. Most teachers are, however, quick to point out that though it may be a result of someone's past-life karma that they suffer, this should not be used as an excuse to treat them poorly; indeed, all should help them and help to alleviate their suffering, leading to them working to alleviate their own suffering.
Rebirth, which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman)) breaks this cycle of birth and death (samsara).
God: The Buddha was not satisfied with the concept of one Almighty God (Ishvara, lit., the Supreme Lord) as in orthodox Hinduism. Buddha said that the ever-changing world goes on as per the rules of Pratītya-Samutpāda. Also, the hypothesis of God would raise philosophical problems, like why is the world ever-changing and full of sorrow (the problem of evil), and why at all did He create the world? [citation needed] If He created the world for any intention, this would be against His self-perfection. Yet at another instance, the Buddha had claimed that "the Supreme Reality is indescribable and inutterable". In this sense, it is better to call Buddhism agnostic. The existence of demigods is recognized. However, in practice, Karma had taken the place of God in Theravada, and the Buddha himself is venerated like God in Mahayana. [citation needed]
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Vegetarianism
Main article: Buddhist vegetarianism
The first lay precept in Buddhism is usually translated as "I undertake the precept to refrain from destroying living creatures." Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. There is a division of view within Buddhism on the need for vegetarianism, with the majority of schools of Buddhism rejecting such a claimed need and with most Buddhists in fact eating meat. A minority of Mahayana Buddhists, however, strongly oppose meat-eating on certain scriptural grounds.
It is written in a number of Mahayana scriptures that vegetarianism is much the preferred way of life, indeed it is enjoined upon the Bodhisattva and disciples of the Buddha in such sutras as the Mahaparinirvana Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra.
The question of whether Buddhists should indeed be vegetarian continues to be an area of vigorous debate and controversy, especially in the West. [citation needed]
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Buddhist religious philosophy and branches
Stone carvings at Dazu near Chongqing, China.Main article: Buddhist religious philosophy
Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives.
Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, and some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances, thus validating dharmic approaches different from their own.
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Buddhism after the Buddha
Main article: History of Buddhism
Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful Mauryan emperor Ashoka converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.
One of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.From the 1st century BCE Buddhism started to emerge, receiving influences "from popular Hindu devotional cults (bhakti), Persian and Greco-Roman theologies which filtered into India from the northwest" (Lowenstein, 1996). Some of these influences appear on the artistic plane with the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara. Mahayana then expanded into Central Asia and to Eastern Asia.
After about 500 CE, Buddhism showed signs of waning in India, becoming nearly extinct after about 1200 CE. This was in part due to Hinduism's revival movements such as Advaita and the rise of the bhakti movement. Over time, the local Buddhist populations gradually assimilated into Islam, hence the concentration of South Asian Islam in the far west and east of the Subcontinent.
Elements of Buddhism have remained within India to the current day: the Bauls of Bengal have a syncretic set of practices with strong emphasis on many Buddhist concepts. Other areas of India have never parted from Buddhism, including Ladakh and other areas bordering the Tibetan, Nepali and Bhutanese borders.
Buddhism also remained in the rest of the world although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China, Korea and Japan, it adopted aspects of the native beliefs of Confucianism, Taoism and Shinto respectively. In Tibet, the Tantric Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.
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Principal schools of Buddhist philosophy
Main article: History of Buddhist schools
In his lifetime, Gautam Buddha had not answered several philosophical questions. On issues like whether the world is eternal or non-eternal, finite or infinite, unity or separation of the body and the soul, complete inexistence of a person after nirvana and then death, nature of the Supreme Truth, etc, the Buddha had remained silent. Hence the Buddhist missionaries often faced philosophical questions from other religions whose answers they themselves did not know. So later Buddhists made various interpretations of Buddha's teachings and formed four major schools of thought.
Shūnyavāda of the Mādhyamikas: this was a Mahayana school, popularized by Nagarjuna and Ashvaghosha. According to the Mādhyamikas, there is a supreme indescribable substance—Shūnyatā (lit., voidness)—which is neither true nor false. Everything in this world arises from this voidness. Hence the world is false as compared to the Shūnyatā. This concept somewhat resembles the Brahman of Advaita Vedanta philosophy of Adi Sankara. (However, Shankara had condemned Shūnyavāda to be "contradictory to all valid means of knowledge".)
Vijñānavāda of the Yogāchāras: this was another Mahayana school, propounded by Asanga and Vasubandhu. According to them, only the consciousness (Vijñāna) is true, and all objects of this world external to the mind are false. They believed in an absolute, permanent consciousness (similar to a soul) called Ālaya Vijñāna. This branch became famous in China, Tibet, Japan and Mongolia.
Bāhyānumeyavāda of the Sautrāntrikas: this was a Nikaya school which believed in the existence of both consciousness and material objects—but believed that the external objects can only be perceived indirectly through inference by our mind (Indirect Realism).
Bāhya-Pratyakshavāda of the Vaibhāshikas: this was another Nikaya school—based on an ancient Buddhist conference in Kashmir, which also believed in the existence of both consciousness and material objects (as composed of atoms). They believed that external objects are known through direct perception (Direct Realism).
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Scriptures
The Buddhist canon of scripture is known in Sanskrit as the Tripitaka and in Pāli as the Tipitaka. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:
Young Tibetan Buddhist monks of DrepungThe Vinaya Pitaka, containing disciplinary rules for the Sangha of Buddhist monks and nuns, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
The Sutta Pitaka (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
The Abhidhamma (Skt: Abhidharma) or commentary Pitaka, containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology. Though the Theravādin Abhidhamma is well preserved and widely known, it should be noted that a number of the early Eighteen Schools each had their own distinct Abhidharma collection with virtually no common textual material.
During the first few centuries after Gautama Buddha, his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the 1st Century CE they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the Pali Canon, which was preserved in Sri Lanka by the Theravāda school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[8] and partial English translations[9] are now readily available on the internet.
The appearance of the Mahāyāna tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, many of which were also described as actual sermons of the Buddha. These include the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, the Avataṃsaka, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakīrti Sutra, and the Nirvana Sutra. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and classical Chinese and are also now read in the West.
The Mahāyāna corpus of sutras further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Some of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. On the other hand, there were texts, such as the Platform Sutra and the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment that did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but are widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the Linji Lu of Chan master Linji. In the course of the development of Korean Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of Jinul, and in Japan, works such as Dogen's Shobogenzo.
Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana works is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). Vajrayāna practitioners also study the Buddhist tantras.
Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient Gandhara in northwest Pakistan. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the 1st century and have been compared to the Dead Sea scrolls in importance. Donated to the British Library in 1994, they are now being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[10].
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Relations with other faiths
Some Hindus (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see avatar) of Lord Vishnu; there are accounts of the Buddha as an incarnation of Vishnu that are pro- and anti-Buddhist (i.e., either that Vishnu "really meant" what he said while incarnated as Buddha or that he was intentionally tricking those who follow unorthodox doctrines). For more information, see Buddha and Vishnu.
Traditionally, there has been a sharp distinction between Buddhism and what is today called "Hinduism"; this distinction is more accurately between Astika and Nastika philosophies, that is, philosophies in India which either affirmed the Vedas as divinely revealed scriptures or else regarded them as fallible human inventions. Thus Buddhism is theoretically a heresy vis à vis orthodox Indian philosophy, though there are many syncretic or ecumenical tendencies within either group which are accepting of the beliefs and practices of the other. Most modern Hindus deeply revere Gautama Buddha. Buddha Purnima, a festival celebrating the birth of Gautama Buddha, is one of the most popular Hindu festivals.
In the Japanese religion of Shintoism Buddha is seen as a Kami (god). The Bahá'í Faith states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Josaphat based on a mistaken account of his life that made him out to be a Christian convert. Some Muslims believe that Gautama Buddha is Dhul-Kifl, one of the prophets mentioned in the Qur'an.
Jainism is an ancient religion and school of thought that predates Buddhism. One of its two most revered teachers, Mahāvīra (599 - 527 BCE according to Jains, though some scholars prefer 549-477 BCE1), was possibly a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as dynamism or vitalism, was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher Pārśvanātha's (877-777 BCE) order and the reforms instituted by Mahavira himself. (The Majjhima Nikaya relates an incident wherein a disciple brings Buddha the news that the Nigantha Nattaputta, i.e. Mahavira, had passed away, thereby suggesting the latter's seniority.) Debates between Buddhists and Jains are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Jains and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts. (See also the "Origins" section, above.)
The relationships between Taoism (Chinese folk religion still popular today) and Buddhism are complex, as they influenced each other in many ways while often competing for influence. The arrival of Buddhism forced Taoism to renew and restructure itself and address existential questions raised by Buddhism. Buddhism was seen as a kind of foreign Taoism and its scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary. Chan (Seon or Zen) Buddhism in particular holds many beliefs in common with philosophical Taoism.
Confucianism also has much in common with Buddhism, and historically, people have practiced both. Some would argue however, that Confucianism is in fact not a religion, but a philosophy. Whatever the case, Buddhism shares many commonalities with Neo-Confucianism , which is Confucianism with more religious elements. In fact, the ritual of ancestor worship normally practiced by Confucianists, has been adapted to Chinese Buddhist beliefs.
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Buddhism in the modern world
The international Buddhist flag was designed in Sri Lanka in the 1880s with the assistance of Henry Steele Olcott and was later adopted as a symbol by the World Fellowship of Buddhists.Buddhism has the characteristics of what would be expected in a cosmic religion for the future: It transcends a personal God, avoids dogmas and theology; it covers both the natural and the spiritual, and it is based on a religious sense aspiring from the experience of all things, natural and spiritual, as a meaningful unity.
— Albert Einstein
Estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 million and 500 million, with 350 million being the most commonly cited figure. [11]
Mahāyāna remains the most common form of Buddhism in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Singapore. Chinese immigrants to Southeast Asia have brought Mahayana Buddhism into Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei.
Theravāda predominates in most of Southeast Asia, including Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. It also has seats of recognition in Malaysia and Singapore.
Vajrayāna is predominant in Tibet, Mongolia, portions of Russia and Siberia, and portions of India, especially those areas bordering Tibet. Kalmykia, while geographically located in Europe, is culturally closely related to Mongolia and thus its Buddhism is more properly grouped with Asian than with Western Buddhism.
While in the West, Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive; in the East, Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with the powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.
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Buddhism in the West
The Indo-Greek king Menander (155-130 BCE) is the first Western historical figure documented to have converted to Buddhism.Main article: Western Buddhism
A distinctive feature of Buddhism has been the continuous evolution of the practice as it was transmitted from one country to another. This dynamic aspect is particularly evident today in the West. Occasional intersections between Western civilization and the Buddhist world have been occurring for thousands of years, from the influence of ancient Greece through Greco-Buddhism, to the Beat Generation, to the development of Buddhist practices adapted to accommodate Western sensibilities, Buddhism continues to grow in the West.
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See also
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Buddhism
Buddhists
History of Buddhist schools
Buddha
Buddhism by country
Buddhist terms and concepts
Buddhist texts
Cultural elements of Buddhism
Faith in Buddhism
God in Buddhism
Nirvana
List of Buddhist topics
List of Buddhists
Kilesa
Virtue
Forgiveness (contains section on Buddhism)
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Related systems and religions
Eastern philosophy
Hinduism
Jainism
Taoism
Zoroastrianism
Manicheanism
Sikhism
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Related modern concepts
Simulated reality
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References
Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) (2003). The Illustrated Guide to World Religions, Oxford University Press. ISBN 1-84483-125-6.
K. Sri Dhammananda, What Buddhists Believe. Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia. (1964) ISBN 9834007127.
Gethin, Rupert (1998). Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192892231.
Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola (2002). Mindfulness in Plain English, Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861713214.
Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The vision of the Buddha, Duncan Baird Publishers. ISBN 1903296919.
Thich Nhat Hanh. The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching. Broadway Books, 1974. ISBN 0767903692.
Thurman, Robert A. F. (translator) (1976). Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture, Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 0271006013.
Walpola Rahula. What the Buddha Taught. Grove Press, 1974. ISBN 0802130313.
Kenneth White. The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo. The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005. ISBN 0773459855.
Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page. The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, (Nirvana Publications 1999-2000).
Yin Shun, Yeung H. Wing (translator). The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master. Wisdom Publications, 1998. ISBN 0861711335.
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Notes
↑ Sarvabuddhavishayavatarajñanalokalamkarasutra as cited by Elías Capriles in The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings. Published on the Web.
↑ Chögyal Namkhai Norbu Dream Yoga And The Practice Of Natural Light. Edited and introduced by Michael Katz, Snow Lion Publications, Ithaca, NY, ISBN 1−55939−007−7, p. 42
↑ Dr. A. Berzin. Alaya and Impure Appearance-Making
↑ Elías Capriles. Buddhism and Dzogchen: the Doctrine of the Buddha and the Supreme Vehicle of Tibetan Buddhism. Part 1 - Buddhism: a Dzogchen Outlook. Published on the Web.
↑ Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Refuge: An Introduction to the Buddha, Dhamma, & Sangha. Third edition, revised, 2001
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External links
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About Buddhism
Buddhism - A Brief Introduction for Westerners
FAQ about Buddhism (Access to Insight)
Beginning Buddhism FAQ
About Buddhism - the teachings of Buddha
SoYouWanna convert to Buddhism?
ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism facts, glossary, timeline and articles.
Buddha Teachings
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Comparative religion
Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism
A Study of Buddhism in Contrast to Christianity
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Journalism
Buddhist Views
The Buddhist Channel a news source.
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Online communities
BuddhaChat.org - A Buddhists Learning Community.
Deer Park Gathering - A Buddhist Web Community (with webboards, chat and reading material) under direction of Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche
DharmaWeb.org
DMC Channel, The secrets of life REVEALED
E-Sangha Buddhism Forum
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Organizations
Buddhists retreat centres UK
Friends of the Western Buddhist Order
Jambudvipa-Moderm Indian Buddhist Movement
Karuna-Socially Engaged Buddhists
Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
Buddhism in London www.meditateinlondon.org.uk
Vipassana Meditation Website Worldwide organization offering courses in Vipassana Meditation, derived from the Maha-Satipatthana Sutra.
International Academy of Buddhism
Hsi Lai Temple
Kvetoslav Minarik's School of Teachings
UrbanDharma
Dhammakaya Foundation
BuddhaNet
Bhavana Society Monastery and Retreat Center
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Teachings
Access to Insight
Essentials of Buddhism
Buddhism in the Theravada tradition - Scriptures and practical meditation teaching from the Tradition of the Elders.
The Buddha And His Dhamma the Buddhist Bible by 20th century Indian Buddhist Rev